{"id":15595,"date":"2026-05-28T15:50:00","date_gmt":"2026-05-28T20:50:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/neuroeconomix.com\/?p=15595"},"modified":"2026-05-28T16:00:43","modified_gmt":"2026-05-28T21:00:43","slug":"icer-qalys-y-budget-impact-models","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/neuroeconomix.com\/es\/icer-qalys-y-budget-impact-models\/","title":{"rendered":"ICER, QALYs y Budget Impact Models: la gu\u00eda pr\u00e1ctica que tu equipo de market access deber\u00eda tener al lado del escritorio"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left\"><strong><em><em><em><em><em><em>Los tres conceptos que aparecen en cada submission y que la mayor\u00eda de los equipos comerciales a\u00fan explican mal. C\u00f3mo entenderlos en 2026 sin atajos y sin imprecisiones.<\/em><\/em><\/em><\/em><\/em><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cualquier director de market access ha estado en esta reuni\u00f3n: el equipo m\u00e9dico presenta los resultados cl\u00ednicos, el equipo comercial defiende el precio, y entonces aparece la pregunta del pagador: \u00ab\u00bfCu\u00e1l es el ICER? \u00bfCu\u00e1ntos QALYs ganamos? \u00bfCu\u00e1l es el impacto presupuestal a tres a\u00f1os?\u00bb.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Si tu equipo no responde con seguridad metodol\u00f3gica esas tres preguntas, ya perdiste la negociaci\u00f3n.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Este art\u00edculo es la gu\u00eda pr\u00e1ctica para entender ICER, QALYs y budget impact models como lo que son: las tres herramientas centrales con las que un pagador decide si tu medicamento entra o no entra.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading has--font-size\"><strong>1. ICER: la raz\u00f3n incremental de costo-efectividad<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>El ICER (Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio) es la relaci\u00f3n entre el costo adicional de una intervenci\u00f3n nueva y el beneficio adicional en salud que genera, comparada con el comparador relevante.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>La f\u00f3rmula es simple:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h6 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>ICER = (Costo nuevo \u2212 Costo comparador) \/ (Efecto nuevo \u2212 Efecto comparador)<\/strong><\/h6>\n\n\n\n<p>El numerador captura el costo incremental. El denominador captura el efecto incremental, que generalmente se expresa en QALYs ganados, a\u00f1os de vida ganados, o casos evitados.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>El ICER por s\u00ed solo no decide nada. Se compara contra un umbral de costo-efectividad. Si el ICER est\u00e1 por debajo del umbral, la intervenci\u00f3n se considera costo-efectiva. Si est\u00e1 por encima, no.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>2. QALY: el denominador que mide vida con calidad<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>El QALY (Quality-Adjusted Life Year) combina cantidad y calidad de vida en una sola m\u00e9trica. Un a\u00f1o vivido en perfecta salud equivale a 1 QALY. Un a\u00f1o vivido con una utilidad de 0.7 equivale a 0.7 QALYs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Es la medida est\u00e1ndar internacional para comparar intervenciones de salud entre patolog\u00edas y entre tecnolog\u00edas. Permite que un pagador compare el valor de una terapia oncol\u00f3gica con el de una intervenci\u00f3n cardiovascular, usando la misma unidad.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Los QALYs se calculan multiplicando los a\u00f1os vividos en cada estado de salud por la utilidad asociada a ese estado. Las utilidades se obtienen de instrumentos validados como EQ-5D, SF-6D o HUI, aplicados a la poblaci\u00f3n relevante.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>El QALY tiene limitaciones reconocidas: no captura bien beneficios fuera del paciente (cuidadores, familia), puede subestimar el valor de intervenciones para enfermedades raras o poblaciones vulnerables, y depende fuertemente del instrumento de utilidad usado. Por eso, en submissions modernas se reportan tambi\u00e9n a\u00f1os de vida ganados, casos evitados y otros desenlaces complementarios.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>3. Umbrales de costo-efectividad: lo que cambi\u00f3 desde 2014<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>Durante a\u00f1os se us\u00f3 la recomendaci\u00f3n atribuida a la OMS de 1 a 3 veces el PIB per c\u00e1pita por QALY ganado como umbral. Esa recomendaci\u00f3n est\u00e1 hoy formalmente desautorizada por la propia OMS, que ha se\u00f1alado que esos rangos son demasiado altos y no reflejan la asequibilidad real en la mayor\u00eda de los pa\u00edses.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>La literatura emp\u00edrica m\u00e1s reciente apunta a rangos m\u00e1s bajos. Una revisi\u00f3n sistem\u00e1tica publicada en PLOS ONE en 2022 (Vallejo-Torres et al. en The Lancet Global Health, 2023) estim\u00f3 umbrales para 174 pa\u00edses y encontr\u00f3 que en el 97% de los casos el umbral por QALY est\u00e1 por debajo de 1 PIB per c\u00e1pita, y en el 96% de los pa\u00edses de ingreso bajo y 76% de los de ingreso medio-bajo, est\u00e1 por debajo de 0.5 PIB per c\u00e1pita.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>En Am\u00e9rica Latina, la mayor\u00eda de las evaluaciones econ\u00f3micas siguen usando umbrales basados en PIB. Per\u00fa es el primer pa\u00eds de la regi\u00f3n que estableci\u00f3 oficialmente un umbral institucional (a trav\u00e9s del Instituto Nacional de Salud) basado en una m\u00e9trica independiente del PIB (la Unidad Impositiva Tributaria), se\u00f1alando una tendencia a alejarse de los umbrales cl\u00e1sicos.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>La implicaci\u00f3n pr\u00e1ctica para tu equipo: cuando construyas un caso de costo-efectividad para un pagador latinoamericano, no asumas que 3 PIB per c\u00e1pita es un umbral aceptado. Cada vez m\u00e1s, los evaluadores aplican criterios m\u00e1s estrictos.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>4. Budget Impact Model: la pregunta que importa al CFO del pagador<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>El budget impact analysis (BIA) responde una pregunta distinta a la del ICER. El ICER pregunta si la intervenci\u00f3n vale lo que cuesta. El BIA pregunta cu\u00e1nto va a costar al presupuesto del pagador en los pr\u00f3ximos a\u00f1os.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Los principios de buena pr\u00e1ctica de ISPOR (Mauskopf et al., Value in Health 2007, vigentes y referenciados en cada short course de ISPOR hasta hoy) establecen los elementos centrales:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Perspectiva del decisor espec\u00edfico:<\/strong> el modelo debe reflejar la perspectiva del pagador real (asegurador, sistema p\u00fablico, hospital), no una perspectiva gen\u00e9rica.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Poblaci\u00f3n elegible:<\/strong> tama\u00f1o y caracter\u00edsticas de la poblaci\u00f3n con la condici\u00f3n tratada en el sistema del pagador.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Mix de tratamientos actual y proyectado:<\/strong> qu\u00e9 reciben los pacientes hoy y c\u00f3mo cambiar\u00eda ese mix con la nueva tecnolog\u00eda.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Horizonte temporal corto:<\/strong> t\u00edpicamente 1 a 5 a\u00f1os, alineado con los ciclos presupuestales del pagador.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Uso de recursos y costos reales del pagador:<\/strong> no precios de lista, sino lo que efectivamente paga la instituci\u00f3n.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>An\u00e1lisis de sensibilidad:<\/strong> variaci\u00f3n de supuestos clave para mostrar robustez.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Una revisi\u00f3n sistem\u00e1tica de BIAs para medicamentos hu\u00e9rfanos (PMC 2021) encontr\u00f3 que la calidad metodol\u00f3gica de estos an\u00e1lisis es a menudo subest\u00e1ndar, especialmente en supuestos sobre tama\u00f1o de poblaci\u00f3n y uptake, que rara vez se justifican o se someten a an\u00e1lisis de sensibilidad. Esto es exactamente lo que un pagador entrenado va a cuestionar primero.<\/p>\n\n\n<style>.wp-block-kadence-advancedheading.kt-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a, .wp-block-kadence-advancedheading.kt-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a[data-kb-block=\"kb-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a\"]{font-style:normal;}.wp-block-kadence-advancedheading.kt-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a mark.kt-highlight, .wp-block-kadence-advancedheading.kt-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a[data-kb-block=\"kb-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a\"] mark.kt-highlight{font-style:normal;color:#f76a0c;-webkit-box-decoration-break:clone;box-decoration-break:clone;padding-top:0px;padding-right:0px;padding-bottom:0px;padding-left:0px;}.wp-block-kadence-advancedheading.kt-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a img.kb-inline-image, .wp-block-kadence-advancedheading.kt-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a[data-kb-block=\"kb-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a\"] img.kb-inline-image{width:150px;vertical-align:baseline;}<\/style>\n<h5 class=\"kt-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a wp-block-kadence-advancedheading\" data-kb-block=\"kb-adv-heading15595_c417fc-1a\"><strong>5. CHEERS 2022: el est\u00e1ndar de reporte que tu submission deber\u00eda seguir<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>El est\u00e1ndar CHEERS 2022 (Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards), publicado por la ISPOR CHEERS II Task Force en Value in Health en 2022, es el referente global para reportar evaluaciones econ\u00f3micas. Es el reporting standard m\u00e1s citado en HEOR a nivel mundial.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>CHEERS 2022 cubre an\u00e1lisis de costo-efectividad, costo-beneficio y modelos econ\u00f3micos. El budget impact analysis no est\u00e1 cubierto por CHEERS y se eval\u00faa con los principios de buena pr\u00e1ctica de ISPOR espec\u00edficos para BIA mencionados arriba.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Para tu equipo: si tu modelo de costo-efectividad no sigue CHEERS 2022, un evaluador serio lo va a notar. Si tu BIA no sigue los principios de Mauskopf, tambi\u00e9n.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>6. C\u00f3mo se ve esto en la pr\u00e1ctica de un equipo de market access<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>Un dossier defendible ante un pagador latinoamericano combina:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Un modelo de costo-efectividad con ICER reportado, comparador relevante, QALYs y desenlaces complementarios, an\u00e1lisis de sensibilidad determin\u00edstico y probabil\u00edstico, reporte conforme a CHEERS 2022.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Un budget impact model con perspectiva del pagador, horizonte 3-5 a\u00f1os, supuestos de uptake justificados y an\u00e1lisis de sensibilidad sobre los supuestos clave.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Una narrativa de valor que traduce esos modelos a un lenguaje de decisi\u00f3n: cu\u00e1nto cuesta, qu\u00e9 entrega, a qu\u00e9 pacientes, en qu\u00e9 plazo.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>El problema hist\u00f3rico no es que estos modelos no se hagan. Es que se entregan tarde, fragmentados entre tres consultores distintos, y la narrativa final llega tan diluida que el pagador termina decidiendo con la informaci\u00f3n incompleta.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading has--font-size\"><strong>C\u00f3mo lo resolvemos en Quantus<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>En Quantus construimos modelos de costo-efectividad, budget impact y historias de valor para equipos de market access en una sola plataforma, conforme a CHEERS 2022 y a los principios ISPOR. En lugar de coordinar tres consultoras y esperar tres meses, tu equipo recibe el paquete completo en seis semanas, listo para defender frente al pagador.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Si tienes un medicamento que necesita acceso en 2026, escr\u00edbenos aqu\u00ed:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.getquantus.ai\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/www.getquantus.ai\/<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><mark style=\"background-color:rgba(0, 0, 0, 0)\" class=\"has-inline-color has-theme-palette-1-color\">Referencias<\/mark><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[1] Mauskopf JA, Sullivan SD, Annemans L, et al. Principles of good practice for budget impact analysis: report of the ISPOR Task Force on good research practices\u2014budget impact analysis. <em>Value in Health<\/em>. 2007;10(5):336-347. Disponible en: <a href=\"http:\/\/ispor.org\/heor-resources\/good-practices\" target=\"_blank\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"ispor.org\/heor-resources\/good-practices\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">ispor.org\/heor-resources\/good-practices<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[2] Husereau D, Drummond M, Augustovski F, et al. Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards 2022 (CHEERS 2022) Statement. <em>Value in Health<\/em>. 2022;25(1):3-9. Disponible en: <a href=\"http:\/\/ispor.org\/heor-resources\/good-practices\" target=\"_blank\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"ispor.org\/heor-resources\/good-practices\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">ispor.org\/heor-resources\/good-practices<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[3] Pichon-Riviere A, Drummond M, Palacios A, et al. Determining the efficiency path to universal health coverage: cost-effectiveness thresholds for 174 countries based on growth in life expectancy and health expenditures. <em>Lancet Global Health<\/em>. 2023;11(6):e833-e842.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[4] Ryen L, Svensson M. Estimating the range of incremental cost-effectiveness thresholds for healthcare based on willingness to pay and GDP per capita: a systematic review. <em>PLOS One<\/em>. 2022;17(4):e0266934.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[5] World Health Organization. Statement on cost-effectiveness thresholds and the misuse of the 1-3 GDP per capita recommendation. Disponible en: who.int<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[6] Cubillos L. An incomplete step in the right direction: Peru&#8217;s National Institute of Health establishes cost-effectiveness threshold. PMC. 2022. Disponible en: <a href=\"http:\/\/ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>[7] Ali J, Patel SK, Yousefi M, et al. Methodological Quality Assessment of Budget Impact Analyses for Orphan Drugs: A Systematic Review. <em>Frontiers in Public Health<\/em>. 2021.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Los tres conceptos que aparecen en cada submission y que la mayor\u00eda de los equipos comerciales a\u00fan explican mal. C\u00f3mo entenderlos en 2026 sin atajos y sin imprecisiones.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":15,"featured_media":15597,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"inline_featured_image":false,"_kad_blocks_custom_css":"","_kad_blocks_head_custom_js":"","_kad_blocks_body_custom_js":"","_kad_blocks_footer_custom_js":"","_kadence_starter_templates_imported_post":false,"_kad_post_transparent":"","_kad_post_title":"","_kad_post_layout":"","_kad_post_sidebar_id":"","_kad_post_content_style":"","_kad_post_vertical_padding":"","_kad_post_feature":"","_kad_post_feature_position":"","_kad_post_header":false,"_kad_post_footer":false,"_kad_post_classname":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[4,8],"tags":[638,696,848,875,869,355,97,661,795,691,170,860,699,855,395,437,859,700,818,141,865,846,870,53,864,440,874,856,15,829],"ppma_author":[747,842],"class_list":["post-15595","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-blog","category-sistema-de-salud","tag-acceso-a-medicamentos","tag-acceso-al-mercado","tag-accesoamedicamentos","tag-budget-impact-models","tag-compras-publicas","tag-enfermedades-raras","tag-eps","tag-evaluacion-de-tecnologias-sanitarias","tag-evidencia-del-mundo-real","tag-farmaceuticas","tag-farmacoeconomia","tag-healthtech","tag-ia","tag-ia-en-pharma","tag-icer","tag-industria-farmaceutica","tag-industriafarmaceutica","tag-inteligencia-artificial","tag-inteligenciaartificial","tag-ips","tag-latinoamerica-2","tag-marketaccess","tag-medical-affairs","tag-medicamentos","tag-medicamentos-de-alto-costo","tag-pharma","tag-qalys","tag-quantus","tag-salud","tag-sistemadesalud"],"taxonomy_info":{"category":[{"value":4,"label":"Blogs 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